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1998 Was The Year of the Oceans!!
NOAA 1998 Year of the Oceans Web Site
IOC 1998 Year of the Oceans Web Site
27 January 2000
Today's Lecture Notes
Announcements
Homework No. 2 is due in class today
Reading: Chapter 6 in your textbook.
Downloads
PPT Slides:
Depth profiles, physiographic charts, and the echo sounder
Lecture Notes: Submarine Geology
Near the end of Tuesday's lecture I introduced material on the topic submarine geology. Review the 25 January web notes and the ppt downloads and today's PPT download as a majority of the class time for today will be spent discussing the continental shelf/slope/rise regimes, submarine canyons, turbidity currents, and measurement of depth and topographic features in the ocean.
Physical Properties of Water
Water is unique in so many of its properties that it stands alone as
the most remarkable fluid on earth.
Here are some important properties of water; note that water is not
"normal" liquid.
Density
Water has its maximum density at 4 deg C. Above this temperature, density decreases as
does most other liquids. But below 4 deg C the density of water decreases! How can this
be?
The density of water is very close to 1.0 (more like 0.999986 depending upon its
temperature). Again, the unique feature of water is its maximum density,occurring at 4 deg
C (actually 3.98C, but we will round temperature to 4C for our purposes).
On either side of 4C the density of water decreases with temperature.This behavior is
anomalous. All other liquids show decreasing density with increasing temperature. We will
come back to the structure
of water.
Heat Capacity (Q)
Heat capacity is the amount of heat, usually expressed in
Calories per mole per deg or joules per mole per deg, absorbed by the substance to raise
its
temperature 1 deg C. The heat capacity of water is highest of any liquid except for
ammonia.
Heat of Fusion (Hf)
The heat of fusion of water is the energy that must be extracted from a substance to
change 1 gram of liquid water to one gram of ice. Hf for water is the highest of all
liquids.
Heat of Evaporation (He)
He is the heat required to change one gram of water to one gram of steam or water vapor.
Hf for
water is the highest of all liquids.
Thermal Expansion (a)
a is the rate of change in the specific volume of water per change in temperature. For
pure water a is zero at 4 deg C; however a is a negative below 4 deg C positive above 4
deg C. a has significance in the density structure of a lake during a cold winter in
Canada.
Electrical Conductivity (L)
L is the inverse of resistance(R) or R=1/L (see your physics or
chemistry textbook).. L for water is small because pure water is not dissociated to any
great extent. Beware, however, water does conduct enough electricity to be
"lethal" if you happen to let a radio or similar electrical device fall into a
bathtub filled with water while you are taking a bath. This is because the small amount of
dissolved ions present in normal water does conduct some electricity.
Molecular Structure of Water
We all know that water is H2O. But there is so much more to water
than simply two hydrogen atoms
and one oxygen atom. A most important aspect of water is the bonding between the hydrogen
and
oxygen atoms and the individual water molecules. Individual water molecules attach to each
other via hydrogen (H)- bonding. This is accomplished via electrostatic the attraction of
H for O and O for
between any two water molecules. In class I will show a number of structures to
demonstrate
H-bonding.
For now consider that the water molecules are not necessarily
individual molecules. Rather the
molecules are bound to each other through H-bonding. In model terms a tetrahedron
structure is the
main repeating system or structure in water. This is most clearly shown in the structure
of ice which is hexagonal (six sided). Ice can be viewed or determined experimentally by
bombarding ice with x-rays and then analyzing the pattern of defracted rays; the pattern
shows a tetrahedron structure.
At OC water does something very unusual: It changes to ice. The
density of ice is around 0.91 g/ml,
nearly a 10% drop in the density of liquid water. Thus ice is an "open"
structure and its density is less than liquid water. (Consider the open structure as space
without volume.)
Fortunately ice floats. If ice were to sink (like most materials
that freeze), bottom creatures would
be crushed to death.
Seawater
Now to seawater and its physical and chemical properties.
Seawater, on the average, contains 35 g of salt per 1 kg of
seawater. The salts in seawater affect the structure and properties of the water in
seawater; we can not apply the physical properties of pure water to seawater: in many ways
its and "apples" and "oranges" analogy.
The salts in seawater are really ions. The ions in seawater did not
get to the ocean from the dissolution NaCl, Mg2SO4 and other major sea salts you might
find in the cabinet of chemistry laboratory.
In class I will give you a formula for making sea salt; you can make
your own "instant ocean" in case
you have a seawater aquarium. (P.S. It’s a whole lot easier to go to Indialantic to
get your own, free!)
Each major ion in seawater is charged (e.g., review your Chem 1011 textbook).
The charge on the ion means the ion will compete for the water molecules because one part
of the molecule has a positive charge while the other part has a negative charge and the
ion is either positive charged or negatively charged. As a result ions become
"hydrated"; some are more hydrated than others depending on the charge of the
ion. (an ion with two charges has a stronger hydrating effect than an ion with a single
charge.
No one really knows the structure of hydrated ions or the structure
of the water near the ions. A good guess based on electrostatic theory is that electrical
force (water has negative charge near the oxygen atoms and positive charge near the
hydrogen atoms -- thus we call water a polar molecule) create some sort of association
between water and ions.
The concentration of water in water is around 55 molar (M,
moles/liter) while the total concentration
of ions is at best no more than about 0.5 molar. You can prove that water is 55 molar by
calculating
the number of moles of water in 1 liter of water (1 liter of water is close to 1000 g);
the formula
weight of water is 18.0. 1000 g divided by 18 g/mole = 55 moles. 1 kg of water is 1 liter
and therefor
water is 55 molar.
Ions affect the physical properties of water. For example the
density seawater is greater than the
density of pure water for two reasons.(1) The ions add mass to the system and more mass
means
greater density. (2) Hydration, discussed above, causes the volume of the water portion of
water to
shrinks over-riding part of the volume increase from the added salt. If volume shrinks
then density
will increase. Chemists refer to this "shrinking" as electrostriction.
There are theoretical models that can be used to estimate
electrostriction. One can also determine
electrostriction effects through measurement of volume changes when salts dissolve in
water.
Your text lists the major ions found in seawater. Generally the top 11 ions,
beginning with the Cl ion
and ending with the fluoride ion, constitute the salinity components.
The "eleven" most abundant ions (boron, primarily a
neutral species) are:
Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+, K+, Sr2+,
these are all cations (positively charged chemical species)
Cl-, SO42-, HCO3-, Br-, B
(neutral, for the most part), and F- (these are all anions, negatively charged chemical
species)
These charged species (and the one uncharge B species) are termed
"conservative" by oceanographers. They are called conservative because their
concentrations change by mixing processes only. In other words if high salinity seawater
mixes with low salinity seawater the resulting salinity is the average (weight according
to how much of each mixed). Also, if evaporation occurs or there is freshwater input,
salinity will change but the relative or normalized concentration of the ions remains
constant. This is constant composition rule, a fundamental rule or law in oceanography.
The constant composition rule was discovered over 100 years ago. It is the
ratio of concentration of
major ions (those that make up the salinity of seawater) is constant.
For convenience in using the constant composition rule, Cl- is
considered the normalizing element. For example, at 35 ppt, the Na+ ion concentration is
10.773 g/kg; at the same salinity, the Cl- ion
concentration is 19.344 g/ kg. The Na/Cl ratio is 0.5569. If we choose different salinity,
say 20 ppt
such as the Indian River Lagoon, the Na+ is 6.156 g/kg and the Cl- is 11.054. The Na/Cl
ratio is
0.5569, the same ratio for the 35 ppt salinity sample.
The constant composition rule applies to the other 9 major chemical
species in seawater.
Salinity is measured using a conductivity meter. Measurements are either made directly onboard a research vessel or water samples are collected at sea and brought back for determination of conductivity. The conductance method for measuring salinity make use of an an important property of seawater, namely is conductivity. Basically each ion in seawater conducts electricity but in different amounts. Ions with two charges conducts more than a singly charged ion. Likewise, the higher the concentration of an ion in seawater the greater its conductivity.
The actual conductivity of seawater is not measured. Rather the conductivity ratio is measured. The conductivity ratio is the ratio of the conductance of the sample to the conductance of seawater of exactly 35 parts per thousand. So, if you measure the conductivity ratio of a sample of seawater and find it to be 1.00000 then the salinity of the sample is 35 parts per thousand.
An equation has been developed and adopted by the international community that
calculates the salinity for a given ratio. We wil use the equation in class to
demontrate the conductivity-salinity relationship.
Summary of Main Points
Pure water is complex; the structure of water is a combination of
tetrahedrons in which water
molecules are bonded together by H-bonding. This structure explains the anomalous
characteristics of water.
Seawater is different than pure or freshwater owing to the 11 major
components (10 ions plus the
neutral boron species). Ions disrupt the normal water structure producing hydrated ion
species. The
characteristics of the these species explains why the density of seawater and pure (or
freshwater) are different.
